Problem-Based
Learning
[Goals and Objectives ]....
[ Learning
Background & Objectives ]
Goals
& Objectives
Problem-Based
Learning Defined:
Finkle and Torp (1995) state that "problem-based learning is
a curriculum development and instructional system that simultaneously
develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge
bases and skills by placing students in the active role of problem
solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that mirrors real-world
problems" (p. 1). Specific tasks in a problem-based learning
environment include:
- determining
whether a problem exists;
- creating
an exact statement of the problem;
- identifying
information needed to understand the problem;
- identifying
resources to be used to gather information;
- generating
possible solutions;
- analyzing
the solutions; and
- presenting
the solution, orally and/or in writing.
Short
Cut to Problem-Based Learning: This is a simplified model. Note
that it is an iterative model. Steps two through five may be conducted
concurrently as new information becomes available and redefines
the problem. Step six may occur more than once--especially when
teachers place emphasis on going beyond "the first draft."
1.
Present the problem statement. Introduce an "ill-structured"
problem or scenario to students. They should not have enough prior
knowledge to solve the problem. This simply means they will have
to gather necessary information or learn new concepts, principles,
or skills as they engage in the problem-solving process.
2.
List what is known. Student groups list what they know about the
scenario. This information is kept under the heading: "What
do we know?" This may include data from the situation as well
as information based on prior knowledge.
3.
Develop a problem statement. A problem statement should come from
the students' analysis of what they know. The problem statement
will probably have to be refined as new information is discovered
and brought to bear on the situation. Typical problem statements
may be based on discrepant events, incongruities, anomalies, or
stated needs of a client.
4.
List what is needed. Presented with a problem, students will need
to find information to fill in missing gaps. A second list is prepared
under the heading: "What do we need to know?" These questions
will guide searches that may take place on-line, in the library,
and in other out-of-class searches.
5.
List possible actions, recommendations, solutions, or hypotheses.
Under the heading: "What should we do?" students list
actions to be taken (e.g., questioning an expert), and formulate
and test tentative hypotheses.
6.
Present and support the solution. As part of closure, teachers may
require students to communicate, orally and/or in writing, their
findings and recommendations. The product should include the problem
statement, questions, data gathered, analysis of data, and support
for solutions or recommendations based on the data analysis.
Students
are encouraged to share their findings on-line with teachers and
students in other schools, within the district, region, state, nation,
or internationally. Teachers will find that students pay more attention
to quality when they have to present or show their written products
to students in other schools.
What
do we know?
|
What
do we need to know?
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What
should we do?
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Adapted
from Stepien, Gallagher, & Workman, 1993
Review
of research: (1) learning in a PBL format may initially reduce
levels of learning (this may be due to the difficulty in determining
what students learned using traditional competence measures), but
may foster, over periods up to several years, increased retention
of knowledge; (2) some preliminary evidence suggests that PBL curricula
may enhance both transfer of concepts to new problems and integration
of basic science concepts into clinical problems; (3) PBL enhances
intrinsic interest in the subject matter; and (4) PBL appears to
enhance self-directed learning skills (metacognition), and this
enhancement may be maintained (Norman & Schmidt).
Goals
of PBL: PBL is used to engage students in learning. This is
based on several theories in cognitive theory. Two prominent ones
are that students work on problems perceived as meaningful or relevant
and that people try to fill in the gaps when presented with a situation
they do not readily understand. Teachers present students with a
problem set, then student work-groups analyze the problem, research,
discuss, analyze, and produce tentative explanations, solutions,
or recommendations. It is essential to PBL that students do not
possess sufficient prior knowledge to address the problem. In the
initial discussion, students develop a set of questions that need
to be addressed. These questions then become the objectives for
students' learning.
Norman
and Schmidt (1992) state there are three roles for PBL. The first
is the acquisition of factual knowledge, the second is the mastery
of general principles or concepts that can be transferred to solve
similar problems, and third, the acquisition of prior examples that
can be used in future problem solving situations of a similar nature.
Acquiring
Factual Knowledge: Activation
of prior knowledge facilitates the subsequent processing of new
information. Small group discussion helps activate prior knowledge.
Elaboration
of knowledge at the time of learning enhances subsequent retrieval.
Matching
context facilitates recall. This means that retrieval of information
is facilitated by retrieving under the same conditions in which
the information was learned.
Transfer
of Principles and Concepts: to insure successful transfer
First,
students need to get the problem cold. Any advance organizer that
identifies the problem in advance appears to detract from the PBL
process. It appears important that students learn and acquire concepts
while wrestling with the problem.
Feedback:
The problem solver must receive corrective feedback about the solution
immediately upon completion Note: feedback
may vary depending upon the situation. Some problems may be convergent,
others may allow multiple correct solutions.
Resources
for Learning: The Exploring the Environment (ETE) materials
have enough information to get students started with the problem
set. Background information is provided, but we have purposely avoided
duplicating everything available about a given subject. Within the
World Wide Web and other Internet features is a seemingly infinite
amount of information. In some cases, the ETE modules point students
to additional areas. Often, students will have to conduct Internet
and Web searches to find materials. Teachers should avoid having
a group of three to five students rely only on the electronic or
on-line materials. Students must be encouraged to divide the work
through a delegation of tasks. Some students may be working with
the computer while others are finding or using written references,
seeking out and interviewing experts, or using other audiovisual
aids.
Activation
of prior knowledge, taking place while a problem is initially discussed,
may have a stage-setting function for new knowledge that facilitates
students processing it.
Actual
Steps: Have the students discuss the scenario, listing everything
they know under a heading entitle: "What we know." This
process helps activate and elaborate prior knowledge, which is subsequently
used for the comprehension of new information.
Creating
the ill-structured Problem: (Adapted from Stepien, Gallagher,
& Workman, 1993).
1.
Students need more information than is initially presented to them.
Missing information will help them understand what is occurring
and help them decide what actions, if any, are required for resolution.
2.
There is no right way or fixed formula for conducting the investigation;
each problem is unique.
3.
The problem changes as information is found.
4.
Students make decisions and provide solutions to real-world problems.
This means there may be no single "right" answer.
Problems
in Implementing PBL:
Students: Students familiar with the traditional "talk
and chalk" classroom are likely to be uncomfortable with the
PBL format for some time. It will be up to the teacher to convince
students that they are researchers looking for information and solutions
to problems that may not have one "right answer." Here
are likely problems:* Students will want to know what they really
have to do to get their grade. They will expect the teacher to prescribe
a number of tasks, events, concepts, and a set "number of pages"
for written products.
Those
students adept at "book learning" may feel uncomfortable
in PBL roles in which they have to conduct research, coordinate
with peers, and generate unique products. These students' parents
may express some concern when their son or daughter isn't comfortable
with this new environment.
Ownership.
Students must feel that this is their problem, otherwise they'll
spend their time figuring out and delivering exactly what the teacher
wants.
Teachers:
Teachers unfamiliar with PBL are in for some surprises. Moving into
"untraditional" instructional modes may appear risky,
scary, and uncertain. If students are new to PBL, they may actually
learn less at first. Becoming comfortable with PBL will take at
least a year, perhaps more, and this mode will consume more of the
teacher's energy. The good news is that this environment is exhilarating,
meaningful, and rewarding. It may turn out to be one of the most
exciting things teachers have experienced.
Relevance.
Look for windows into students' thinking in order to pose problems
of increasing relevance.
Challenge.
The problem scenario should challenge students' original hypotheses.
We have tried to make the Exploring the Environment modules engaging;
don't hesitate to elaborate upon the scenario to engage students.
Time.
Students must be given time and stimulation to seek relevance and
the opportunity to reveal their points of view.
Ownership.
If the teacher appears to be heading students in a particular direction,
they'll see that this really isn't their problem after all. They'll
see that there is a correct solution and that it belongs to the
teacher.
Complexity.
Teachers new to the PBL classroom may be tempted to give students
key variables, too much information, or problem simplification.
Complexity of scenarios has been shown to increase student motivation
and engagement.
Second
questions. Avoid using the dreaded "second question"
as a signal the student is wide of the mark. Regularly asking students
to elaborate sends the message that the teacher wants to know what
the student thinks and why. Brooks and Brooks (1993) state that
"awareness of students' points of view is an instructional
entry point that sits at the gateway of personalized education...teachers
who operate without awareness of their students' points of view
often doom students to dull, irrelevant experiences, and even failure"
(p. 60).
Note:
Questioning Techniques. In a PBL classroom, teachers should act
as metacognitive coaches, serving as models, thinking aloud with
students and practicing behavior they want their students to use
(Stepien and Gallagher, 1993). Students should become used to such
metacognitive questions such as: What is going on here? What do
we need to know more about? What did we do during the problem that
was effective? Teachers coax and prompt students to use questions
and take responsibility for the problem. Over a period of time,
students become self-directed learners, teachers can then provide
less scaffolding, fading into the background (Stepien and Gallagher,
1993).
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Problem-Based
Learning Background & Objectives
A Primer for Teachers Using the Exploring the Environment
Modules Education's purpose includes preparing people to lead
fulfilling and responsible lives. Science education should help
students understanding the biophysical environment and human interaction
with that environment. Such understanding should lead to informed
decisions concerning how humans treat their life-support system,
the biosphere (AAAS, 1990).
Our project,
Exploring the Environment (ETE), is developing earth science modules
for delivery over the Internet. Technology, such as remote sensing,
simulations, and ground-truthing provide us with a myriad of tools
with which to study globa-scale interactions and to make informed
predictions and decisions about our planet. Remote sensing allows
students to see Earth subsystem interrelations on a grand scale.
It is ideal for the study of change and of the wider relations between
components of the biosphere. Before remote-sensing technology became
available, it was difficult for humans to realize the global impact
of their actions. With the advent of remote-sensing capabilities
it bacma evident that the interconnectedness of Earth systems, however,
means that human-induced changes are seized upon and magnified by
nature, to be passed through the chain of natural events, to have
far-reaching, and sometimes, unexpected effects.
These
tools, however, seem to be making little impact in elementary and
secondary schools (Cuban, 1986). Studies show that science learning
at the high school level has little effect upon students' science
literacy, including their understanding of basic concepts, the process
of science, or the impact of science on society (Miller, 1986).
Our experience and research indicate that change in science classroom
methodology can lead to student understanding of critical issues.
Our goal is to engage and motivate students to explore and understand
issues in depth. The challenge is to provide teachers with alternative
approaches to teaching and learning that will achieve the goal.
Problem-based learning (PBL) is one of these alternatives.
Problem-Based
Learning Finkle and Torp (1995) state that "problem-based
learning is a curriculum development and instructional system that
simultaneously develops both problem solving strategies and disciplinary
knowledge bases and skills by placing students in the active role
of problem-solvers confronted with an ill-structured problem that
mirrors real-world problems" (p. 1). What is desired is a real-world
program that combines science content and skills to create useful
experiences for learners by drawing connections between students'
lives and the Earth's interacting environmental subsystems and environmental
resource issues. The benefits of PBL include engagement in learning
due to cognitive dissonance, relevance to real-world scenarios,
opportunities for critical thinking, metacognitive growth, and real-world
authenticity that promotes transfer and recall (Finkle and Torp,
1995).
Remote
Sensing Datasets in the ETE modules will provide the major source
of information for students' problem solving initiatives. The core
of problem-solving is to learn to use information in a logical,
useful way. The only real purpose to gather information is to use
it (Glasser, 1993)! These data are derived from real-world remote-sensing
tools, employed by practicing scientists and accessed through the
Internet. A very simple design of events for PBL comes from Stepien,
Gallagher, and Workman (1993). In their iterative model, students
are presented with an ill-structured scenario. team of students
then pool information and list it under a heading "What do
we know?" They evoke prior knowledge and discuss the current
situation. This analysis leads to a problem statement. Although
the problem statement is sometimes misdirected, it is a starting
point and may be revised as assumptions are questioned and new information
comes to light. Under the heading "What do we need to know?"
students list questions that must be answered to address missing
knowledge or to shed light on the problem. Under a third heading,
"What should we do," students keep track of such issues
as who to interview, what resources to consult, or what specific
actions to perform. Students gather information from the classroom,
through electronic sources, the school's library, and from experts
on the subject. As new information comes to light, it is analyzed
for its reliability and usefulness in either refining working hypotheses
or aticulating the problem statement.
It is
important to train teachers to adopt new frameworks for the classroom
when operating in PBL environments. For example, students begin
the problem cold. They discuss the problem, generate hypotheses,
identify relevant facts, and learning issues. Unlike standard classes,
learning objectives are not stated up front. Students generate the
learning issues or objectives based on their analysis of the problem.
If prerequisite knowledge relevant to the problem's resolution is
missing, then students are responsible for its accumulation (Savery
and Duffy, In Press).
Design
Savery and Duffy (In Press), discuss issues for instructional
design in constructivist environments:
- Anchor
all learning activities to a larger task or problem.
- Support
the learner in developing ownership for the overall problem or
task.
- Design
an authentic task.
- Design
the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity
of the environment students should be able to function in at the
end of learning.
- Give
the learner ownership of the process used to develop a solution.
- Design
the learning environment to support and challenge learners' thinking.
- Encourage
testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts.
- Provide
opportunity for support and reflection on both the content learned
and the learning process.
Teachers
unfamiliar with PBL will profit from elaboration of the issues listed
above. First, create an ill-structured problem based on desired
outcomes, learner characteristics, and compelling situations from
the real (relevant) world (Finkle and Torp, 1995). The ill-structured
problem addresses one "big question or idea" in a "whole
to part" form. The ill-structured problem must raise the concepts
and principles relevant to the subject matter area, but data critical
to the problem must not be highlighted. If critical data is highlighted
the whole procedure then becomes a mere procedure of finding what
the teacher deems essential, then feeding it back.
Brooks
and Brooks (1993) state that learners of all ages are more engaged
in problems addressed in "whole to part" forms. This structure
allows for multiple-entry points and addresses multiple learning
styles. Providing an overarching problem set also creates a purpose
for engagement, as opposed to the usual assignment of a chapter
and end-of-chapter study questions. Students know from the outset
where they are headed and why (Savery and Duffy, In Press).
Relevance
is a primary issue. Brooks and Brooks (1993) deem it one of the
universal or guiding principles of constructivist teaching. They
suggest searching for windows into students' thinking in order to
pose problems of increasing relevance. The problem scenario should
also challenge students' original hypotheses. The challenge, incongruity,
anomaly, or discrepant event creates a springboard to activity based
on cognitive dissonance (Keller, 1983). For example, Nussbaum and
Novick (1982) state that in order for accommodation of a new concept
to occur, students must first recognize a problem as well as their
inability to solve it. Students' inability is brought about by presentation
of a "discrepant event." A discrepant event is simply
an inexplicable condition, statement or situation. The discrepant
event creates a state of disequilibrium (or cognitive dissonance).
The key in Nussbaum and Novick's argument is that once students
are in a state of disequilibrium, they are motivated by "epistemic
curiosity" (Berlyne, 1965) to reduce the disequilibrium. Nussbaum
and Novick (1982) suggest that traditional instruction seldom provides
for students to experience cognitive conflict. Bruce and Bruce (1992)
suggest that logic-defying problems often make us feel disequilibrium.
Motivation from the disequilibrium causes questioning, snooping,
and searching to reduce uncertainty and re-enter a state of equilibrium.
Execution
Finkle and Torp (1995) refer to the actual execution as "cognitive
coaching." In this phase, students are actively defining problems
and constructing potential solutions. Teachers model, coach, and
fade--supporting and making explicit students' learning processes.
Students must be given time and stimulation to seek relevance and
the opportunity to reveal their points of view. They also need time
to ponder the situation or scenario, form their own responses, and
accept the risk of sharing responses with peers (Brooks and Brooks,
1993). Using remote-sensing databases within ETE, students will
be expected to synthesize and evaluate such matters as the cause
and effect relationships of degradational and tectonic forces concerning
the dynamic Earth and its surface; the relationship of atmospheric
heat transfer to meteorological processes; and the relationship
between Earth processes and natural disasters. Students should also
be able to make and support insightful and informed recommendations
to alleviate environmental problems.
Teachers
and students used to traditional instruction may be in for some
surprises. It takes time, patience and a willingness to accept risk
and uncertainty to begin using these types of classroom methods.
It may take teachers one to two years to feel confidence with these
approaches to learning. Students, for example, will likely be very
reluctant to take risks on their own--especially if they are used
to having the objectives, assignments, and problems handed to them.
If they are used to standard objective tests, then students may
dwell more on what they have to do to "get their grade"
than in readily adapting to the PBL format (Myers, Purcell, Little,
and Jaber, 1993).
During
the PBL process, teachers new to this technique, may be tempted
to give students key variables, too much information, or problem
simplification. Depending on the students' ages, complexity generates
relevance and interest (Brooks and Brooks, 1993). Barrows (1992)
states that teachers' interactions should be at the metacognitive
level and that opinions or information sharing with students must
be avoided. Doing so implies that there is a "correct answer"
and takes away student ownership of the problem.
Student
ownership is essential. If they do not own the problem, they spend
their time figuring out what the teacher wants. One signal teachers
and students will have to pay attention to is the presence of the
dreaded "second question." In traditional lecture and
recital classrooms teachers ask questions. A follow-up question
to a student's reply usually sends the message that the answer was
"incorrect." The student then spends more time trying
to figure out "what the teacher" wants. Regularly asking
students to elaborate sends the message that the teacher wants to
know what the student thinks and why. Brooks and Brooks (1993) state
that "awareness of students' points of view is an instructional
entry point that sits at the gateway of personalized education...teachers
who operate without awareness of their students' points of view
often doom students to dull, irrelevant experiences, and even failure"
(p. 60).
In a
PBL classroom, teachers should act as metacognitive coaches, serving
as models, thinking aloud with students and practicing behavior
they want their students to use (Stepien and Gallagher, 1993). Students
should become used to such metacognitive questions such as: What
is going on here? What do we need to know more about? What did we
do during the problem that was effective? Teachers coax and prompt
students to use questions and take on responsibility for the problem.
Over a period of time, students become self-directed learners, teachers
then fade (Stepien and Gallagher, 1993).
Summary
Our project, Exploring the Environment, is developing Earth Science
modules for delivery over the Internet. Our position is that new
technology such as remote sensing databases and electronic means
of delivery are important tools that will create "wall-less"
classrooms. Teachers' roles, however, may be the essential ingredient
in effective technology use in the teaching-learning scenario. We
have presented means for teachers to use in helping students engage
in learning and reaching new levels of understanding. This paper
reinforces the role of the teacher as the primary agent in successful
teacher-student interactions. If anything, teachers' roles will
become even more important. As Newman, Griffin and Cole (1989) state:
"We have seen that the process of instruction cannot be reduced
to direct transmission of knowledge, nor are creative learning processes
necessarily entirely internal to individuals" (p. 112).
ETE students
need time for exploring, making observations, taking wrong turns,
testing ideas, doing things over; time for collaboration, collecting
things, and constructing physical and mathematical models for testing
ideas. They also need time for learning prerequisite mathematics,
technology, or science they may need to deal with the questions
at hand; time for asking around, reading, and arguing; time for
wrestling with unfamiliar and counterintuitive ideas and for coming
to see the advantage in thinking in a different way (AAAS, 1990).
Teachers need time too--time to reclaim the skills of curriculum
development and instructional creativity. Time and resources are
needed for teachers to develop and deliver the ETE curriculum, to
train and work together, to restructure the entire science classroom
teaching practice to meet the diverse needs of students that comprise
today's student body. To accomplish these vital tasks of staff development,
the ETE Instructional Design Team will provide adequate time and
funding for the kind of experimentation and risk taking needed to
create motivating experiences for learners and teachers using contemporary
science tools and topics to be successful in this new era of Science
Education. (Botti and Myers, 1995) [back
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